From the Castle to the Avenidas Novas, Lisbon bears the marks of time and all it has witnessed. From Roman presence to the passing of the Crusaders, from natural disasters to maritime epics, political conspiracies and royal assassinations, the Portuguese capital has seen it all. Join us on this journey through the magnificent city and history of Portugal!
Lisbon is the Castle of São Jorge, the charm of Graça’s narrow lanes, and the children of Alfama. It’s an ancient city, rooted in Celtic memories and early Iberian settlements that established themselves on the castle hill, a pre-Roman Olisipo that thrived on its port, maritime traffic and trade with the Phoenicians. To the trade in precious metals – the basis of exchange at the time – salt, salted fish and pure-bred Lusitano horses would later be added. According to legend, the city was founded by Ulysses, the Greek hero Odysseus, who gave rise to a settlement surrounded by seven hills. From Olysipo, it became Olisipo, Ulisippo, Olisipo, Olisipona, then Lisipona, Lisibona, Lisbona, Lixbona, Lixboa, and finally Lisboa, which explains the abbreviation “Lx”, with the city’s evolving name reflecting the influence of major cultures, including the Arabic.
Roman Olisipo stretched from the Castle of São Jorge down to Terreiro do Trigo, Campo das Cebolas, Ribeira Velha and Rua Augusta, with numerous remains still visible today such as the ruins of the 1st-century Roman theatre on Rua de São Mamede in Alfama. At the time, the Roman elite would enjoy events there and feast on garum, a fish-based sauce preserved in amphorae and exported to Rome and the entire empire. Wine and salt were other products widely traded in that era.
With the fall of the Roman Empire, Lisbon fell prey to barbarian invasions, witnessing the arrival of Alans, Vandals, Suebi and Visigoths – the latter successfully establishing control. This was followed by Muslim rule, after the 711 invasion of the Iberian Peninsula during a Visigothic civil war. Lisbon (then Alusbona) became a key administrative and commercial centre.
The city reached its peak in the 10th century, with over 100,000 inhabitants – often larger than Paris or London. Renovated under Middle Eastern influence, Lisbon saw the construction of a great mosque, a castle, a governor’s palace, a medina and an alcácer (fortress). Alfama grew next to the urban core, and Almada (al-Madan) was founded on the southern bank of the Tagus, mainly to protect the city.
With the help of the Crusaders, King Afonso Henriques opened a new chapter in the history of Lisbon and Portugal, taking the city on 1 November 1147. This marked the beginning of major transformations, such as the conversion of the seven-domed mosque into the Sé Cathedral.
Lisbon continued to grow as a mercantile hub, opening trade routes to the ports of Northern Europe and becoming even more prosperous and dynamic in its intercultural exchanges.
Lisbon, Capital of the Nation
With the increased security following the conquest of the Algarve in the 13th century, King Afonso III transferred the capital of the territory to Lisbon. During the reign of King Dinis, the Terreiro do Paço was constructed, with land reclaimed from the sea through drainage works, and the Rossio became the city’s central hub. Lisbon was by then already one of the most significant centres of international trade. The famous muralha fernandina (Fernandine Wall) was erected following the Castilian siege of Lisbon. Below the wall lived the lower classes: day labourers, street vendors, fishermen and farmers. It was during this time that the streets of trades emerged, grouping craftsmen according to their skills (such as Rua do Ouro, Rua da Prata and Rua dos Fanqueiros).
Jews took refuge in the judiaria, which occupied the parishes of Santa Maria Madalena, São Julião, São Nicolau and Rua Nova dos Mercadores, where the grand synagogue was located. Muslims, meanwhile, lived in the Mouraria, with their mosque on Rua do Capelão. Unlike the Jews, they were seen as less refined and educated, with much of their elite having returned to North Africa. They cultivated vegetables in the outskirts of the city. The term alfacinha (little lettuce), used to refer to people from Lisbon, is said to derive from the lettuces they grew, which were not commonly eaten in northern Portugal.
Both Jews and Muslims paid special taxes. From this also comes the term saloio, a distortion of saloia, referring to the tax paid by Muslims who farmed on the outskirts.
Lisbon’s awakening to prosperity was abruptly interrupted in 1290 by its first major earthquake, which destroyed part of the city and was followed by several smaller ones. Famine struck in 1333, and in 1348 the Black Death wiped out half the population.
A Leap Towards Prosperity
The Succession Crisis of 1383–85 marked a new chapter in the history of the Portuguese capital. After the death of King Fernando, the question of who should rightly ascend to the throne arose. Castile, allied with the conservative medieval Catholic aristocracy, was favoured by the upper classes, sharing similar interests and a social structure based on land ownership. They also supported a crusading spirit against the Moors of North Africa and favoured the unification of Hispania.
On the other hand, the wealthy and pluralist merchants of Lisbon feared that union with Castile would sever their trade links with England, the North, and North Africa. They supported the claim of João, Master of Avis, to the Portuguese throne. The Castilian Siege of Lisbon and the Battle of Aljubarrota would affirm the Avis dynasty and mark the rise of a new Portuguese nobility, made up of Lisbon’s merchants.
In the Santos neighbourhood, the new bourgeois nobility began building palaces and manor houses. This period also saw the construction of the Carmo Church and the first multi-storey residential buildings in a Lisbon of narrow, winding streets, where houses stood beside vegetable gardens and orchards.
As Lisbon grew into a major commercial hub, irrigated agriculture was abandoned in favour of wheat imports. In 1417, dumping rubbish near the Carmo Monastery and in other areas was prohibited, and by 1426 it became illegal to throw waste in the streets or let chickens roam freely.
A decisive turning point came with the rise of the Ottoman Empire and increasing hostility from the Turks, which threatened traditional trade routes. Lisbon’s merchants, many descended from Muslims and Jews, sought to reach the source of goods that had previously been accessed via intermediaries. Thus began the Age of Discoveries, led by Prince Henry the Navigator and supported by the Order of Christ, which funded navigators and shared resources and knowledge.
After his death, private enterprise took over, with Fernão Gomes, a Lisbon merchant, becoming the first to hold a commercial monopoly. Lisbon began receiving an even wider variety of goods: sugarcane and wine from Madeira, wheat from Ceuta, musk, indigo, cotton from North Africa, and gold from Guinea. From India and the East came pepper, cinnamon, nutmeg, medicinal plants, cotton, diamonds, spices, porcelain, silk, slaves, and brazilwood.
Lisbon became the luxury market of Europe, controlling trade from Japan to Ceuta. By the 16th century, it was the richest city in the world, drawing merchants from all corners. King Manuel I’s court held lavish parades featuring lions, elephants, rhinoceroses and camels.
The city’s population grew to around 200,000, and the Bairro Alto, then known as Vila Nova dos Andrades, emerged as the wealthiest district.
The 16th century also saw the construction of the Jerónimos Monastery, the Belém Tower, the São Lourenço Fort at Bugio, the Royal Palace and the Hospital of All Saints. Street paving received new attention, with Portuguese cobblestone becoming widespread.
In science and letters, Lisbon experienced an intellectual flowering, with figures such as Damião de Góis, Pedro Nunes, Garcia de Orta, Duarte Pacheco Pereira, Luís de Camões, Bernardim Ribeiro and Gil Vicente making their mark.
The End of the Golden Age
Following the expulsion of the Jews from Spain, many had taken refuge in Portugal, making up one fifth of Lisbon’s population. Later, they were forced to convert to Christianity, becoming New Christians. This allowed them to continue expanding their businesses, representing a significant portion of the mercantile trade. However, with the arrival of the Inquisition and the support of the Old Christians, the persecution of the Jews intensified, culminating in the autos-da-fé, during which there was a high death toll. The Inquisition ultimately functioned as a tool of social control by the Old Christians against nearly all Lisbon merchants. The prosperity of the capital was destroyed in this climate of persecution and intolerance, with many fleeing to England and the Netherlands, taking with them the knowledge Portugal had taken so long to acquire—knowledge that had guaranteed its financial success. Meanwhile, feudal mindsets took hold, and England and the Netherlands devastated the national markets.
It was at this time that a vulnerable King Sebastian gave way to the nobility’s ambition to conquer territory in North Africa, a venture that cost him his life at the Battle of Alcácer Quibir in 1578 and led to Portugal losing its independence. Philip II of Spain, also Philip I of Portugal, assumed territorial and governmental control in 1580. This fulfilled the dream of the Spanish monarch’s father, Charles I, who had once declared that “if I were king of Lisbon, I would soon be king of the world.” It is true that Spain came to dominate Lisbon’s future, but Lisbon was no longer the same. Having lost much of its commercial ports and with much of its fleet destroyed following the defeat of the Invincible Armada, Lisbon rapidly declined in importance, falling into deep ruin.
Then came the earthquake of 1598 and the plague, which further contributed to economic decline, rising unemployment, misery, and increasing crime. During the 1636 revolt of the Catalans against oppressive trade taxes, Portugal became involved in suppressing the rebellion. It was precisely at this moment that Lisbon’s merchants, together with the minor and middle nobility, persuaded King John IV to claim the throne, marking the beginning of the Restoration.
At that time, the economic ruin was alleviated by gold coming from Brazil. This wealth funded new projects. Lisbon witnessed the arrival of the Baroque style, with the construction of the Church of Santa Engrácia and the Aqueduct of Águas Livres. However, the common people lived in utter misery; it was during this period that the first descriptions of the city as a dirty and degraded place appeared.
At 9:40 in the morning on 1 November 1755, everything in the Portuguese capital changed forever. On All Saints’ Day, most of the population was attending mass, having left candles burning at home—the most common form of lighting at the time. Suddenly, a rumble sounded as if coming from the earth’s depths, and seconds later, not a stone remained standing. Lisbon succumbed to the shaking caused by the Earthquake, which would never be forgotten by its inhabitants. Buildings collapsed and were destroyed forever, including the Hospital of All Saints, the Carmo Convent, and the Inquisition Tribunal.
Fleeing from collapsing churches and narrow streets that fell like houses of cards, the population headed towards Terreiro do Paço, a large open space considered safer—only to witness the sea retreating, revealing sunken ships and lost treasures, before waves at least ten metres high surged in and swallowed the city. The fires that the floodwaters did not extinguish lasted about five days in total. Of the 20,000 humble homes belonging to the common people, 17,000 were lost. The Bairro Alto and Campo de Ourique districts were spared, but around 35,000 deaths were recorded. Looting and inevitable chaos followed. Lisbon woke wounded—and so did its people.
The Pombal Reform
From this harsh trial faced by Lisbon and its people emerged the ideal conditions for a very ambitious man to seize the moment and take control of the nation’s destiny. Sebastião de Carvalho e Melo, Marquis of Pombal, rolled up his sleeves and only rested after “burying the dead and taking care of the living,” rebuilding Lisbon into a more modern city aligned with the ideals of the Enlightenment, already established in other European countries. The Marquis took advantage of King Joseph’s detachment from the capital and immediately curtailed the power of the Church, expelling the Jesuits from the country. He also limited the power of the conservative territorial aristocracy, resulting in the execution of several members of the Távora family, which served as a warning to all others. The Inquisition was abolished, and the New Christians regained their status, now also holding prominent government positions.
Support for industry followed, with the establishment of factories in Lisbon and other cities. But first and foremost, Pombal undertook the reconstruction of Lisbon using the gold arriving from Brazil, which would continue until 1806. It is estimated that 20 million cruzados were spent on this effort. The Baixa project, designed by Eugénio dos Santos and Carlos Mardel, now featured wide, orthogonal streets and avenues, and buildings were based on the “Pombaline cage” concept. Rua Augusta became the structural heart of the city, running north to Rossio and south to Terreiro do Paço.
Attracted by the demand for labour, the population grew to 250,000, settling in areas such as Estrela, Rato, Alcântara, Ajuda, Sapadores, and Amoreiras. To stimulate the middle class, Pombal also promoted the creation of the first cafés, such as Martinho da Arcada in Terreiro do Paço and Nicola in Rossio, which became frequented by a self-aware bourgeois middle class, composed of both New and Old Christians. This group would later give rise to political movements advocating liberalism and republicanism.
With the death of King Joseph, Queen Maria I ascended to the throne. Known as “Viradeira” (the Turnaround Queen), she favoured the advice of conservative nobles and the clergy, dismissing the prime minister and reversing some of Pombal’s progressive reforms. Responsible for building the Basilica of Estrela, Maria I nonetheless witnessed a deterioration in the economic conditions that had greatly improved under Pombal. Misery and crime returned to Lisbon, prompting the creation of a special police force led by Pina Manique. Freemasons, Jacobins, and liberals were arrested, tortured, and expelled; newspapers were censored, and cafés were monitored by plainclothes agents.
From Enlightenment to Liberalism
The year 1776 saw the American Revolution, which influenced all of Europe to embrace liberal ideals, and in 1789 came the French Revolution. Napoleon declared himself Emperor and imposed a continental blockade, banning trade with England. As an ally of England, Portugal refused to participate in the blockade, prompting Napoleon to send Junot to the Portuguese territory, where he took up residence at the Palace of Queluz. Though initially welcomed by Lisboetas, it soon became clear that Pombal’s policies would never be reinstated. On the contrary, Portugal was to be divided, and Lisbon incorporated into the French Empire.
It was then that Portugal turned once again to its old alliance with England, which came to its aid. French troops, outnumbered, were forced to flee. However, Lisbon was compelled to open Brazil’s ports to England. In mainland Portugal, the British presence executed bourgeois supporters of the French cause, and weary of this, it was the bourgeoisie of Porto who revolted against English colonialism, pledging allegiance to liberalism and its ideals during the 1820 coup d’état.
A civil war ensued, with Dom Miguel leading the absolutist conservatives against the liberal constitutionalist forces of his brother, Dom Pedro, who emerged victorious in 1834, although the changes the people dreamed of were never fully realised. The country became divided between two radical factions, and in this chaotic environment, northern powers prepared to divide Portugal’s colonies and provinces.
Nonetheless, this period saw the beginnings of public lighting—first with oil lamps, then fish oil, and later gas lamps—the construction of a road network, the introduction of steamship connections, and the building of railways, the first stretch of which only opened in 1856 due to conflicts between conservatives and liberals.
Brazil became independent, and the gold revenues ceased to flow to Lisbon. The city stagnated, losing importance and sinking once again into poverty. From the fifth most populous city in Europe, Lisbon fell to tenth place. The situation worsened rapidly, with Lisbon regarded as a poor, dirty city—a mere extension of North Africa, as France, England, and Germany liked to describe it—a territory incapable of self-government.
Emigration began. Many poor people left for Brazil, not to manage lands but to work them for survival, while the upper class lived as if blind, copying the lifestyles of their northern European peers but based on outdated, deficit-ridden rural exploitation and unjustifiable protectionism, orbiting the royal court in search of subsidies and supported by taxes levied on the poor.
Corruption and inertia were rampant throughout Lisbon’s society, though figures such as Fontes Pereira de Melo stood out, advocating economic liberalisation and industrialisation. The Santa Apolónia railway station in Lisbon and Rossio station in Porto marked the start of the railway line. Electric lighting reached Lisbon’s streets, and efforts were made to change the image of a dirty, decaying city by applying tiles (azulejos) to house façades or painting them pink. Systems of plumbing, sewage, and water treatment were introduced, and streets were paved with the distinctive Portuguese calçada technique.
Horse-drawn trams appeared and, in 1901, were replaced by electric trams still familiar today. Elevators were installed, and the city’s cultural centre settled in Chiado, with clubs such as Grémio Literário and cafés like Tavares and Café do Chiado. In 1878, the Passeio Público was demolished to make way for Avenida da Liberdade. Above it rose Praça Marquês de Pombal and new avenues for the new Lisbon. These streets witnessed the rise of townhouses for Lisbon’s elites.
New neighbourhoods expanded westwards, such as Campo de Ourique, and eastwards, like Estefânia. Lisbon was then a new city, with its geographic centre at Praça Marquês de Pombal and the Baixa district as the location for prominent shops. To the west lived the upper middle class and wealthy bourgeoisie, and to the east, the lower middle class and common people. Bullfights and fado became popular entertainment, revue theatre captivated audiences, and the first public gardens were created, led by Jardim da Estrela, where the bourgeoisie would stroll on weekends.
The upper class was composed of conservative nobles, titled bourgeois, and Brazilians (formerly poor emigrants who had become wealthy and wished to be accepted in high society). Conversely, the poor classes grew significantly, with proletarians arriving to work in factories and living in miserable, degraded neighbourhoods. The liberal middle classes continued to pay taxes to sustain the luxuries of the upper classes. Inevitably, an alliance formed between the more educated proletariat and the middle classes, giving rise to radical liberalism or republicanism.
The End of the Monarchy and the Establishment of the Republic
With this movement, the Republican Party emerged, advocating universal suffrage, the end of privileges granted to the Catholic Church and rents owed to the nobility, and the overthrow of the political class discredited by corruption and incompetence. Meanwhile, the country was increasingly in debt and more dependent on northern European countries, suffering a further humiliation with the episode known as the British Ultimatum—ironically perpetrated by an allied nation.
At the end of the 19th century, Lisbon saw the rise of its first industrial zones in the districts of Alcântara, Bom Sucesso, and Santo Amaro. Worker courtyards and backyards appeared, especially in Graça, where labourers who had arrived from the countryside to work in the factories lived, along with the first working-class neighbourhoods and trade unions.
The Republican Party brought together the middle classes and professionals (such as doctors and lawyers) and proletarians, gradually gaining more influence. The royal family suffered an assassination attempt in 1908, resulting in the deaths of King Carlos and the heir prince, Luís Filipe.
On the afternoon of Saturday, 1 February, as the royal family returned to Lisbon from Vila Viçosa, Manuel Buíça aimed his rifle at the landau carrying the royal family, shooting the king in the spine and delivering a fatal blow to the Portuguese monarchy. Supported by Alfredo Costa, who also shot the king, Buíça moved forward and wounded the prince in the face.
From that day until the proclamation of the republic, only two years passed. The revolt unfolded in Lisbon, with the population forming barricades and arming themselves, the army experiencing numerous desertions, and the country embracing the republican regime.
The First Republic was proclaimed, bringing liberal measures such as social support for workers, the creation of the welfare state, the right to strike, and the abolition of privileges for the Church and nobility, among others. However, this period proved highly turbulent, with continuous political disputes and violence. Lisbon became the scene of attacks and widespread instability.
In 1916, Portugal participated in the First World War as an ally, sending men and considerable resources, which further intensified the crisis and brought the country closer to episodes of famine.
Subsequent coups d’état were led by conservative and pro-Catholic factions, and in 1918 the Spanish flu arrived, decimating thousands of people.
It is from this period that Lisbon remembers the construction of most of the buildings above the Avenidas Novas—painted in yellow, pink, and light blue—with multi-storey façades crowned with mansard roofs. These were built by small entrepreneurs who came from Tomar, known as the “wild ducks.”
Then came 1926 and with it the end of the First Republic, defeated by the anti-democratic conservative right, led by Gomes da Costa and Salazar. This regime would last until 1974, when the Carnation Revolution took place, with one of its main scenes being the Carmo Convent—a monument that throughout its history witnessed many upheavals and changes in the Portuguese capital.
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